[38], Lascar is located in the main volcanic arc, on the western margin of the Altiplano. [222] The 18 April eruption was seen from the El Abra copper mine 220 kilometres (140mi) away and resulted in ash fall north-northeast from the volcano. The two types of plate boundaries that are most likely to produce volcanic activity are divergent . Science of Geology and Scientific Method 1. [171], Vulcanian explosions started on 18 April 1993, and on 1920 April 1993, a major eruption occurred. Data available through GEOFON. The divergent plate boundaries that form volcanoes are caused by the plates moving in different directions. The white mushroom eruptive column rose 4000-5000 m high over the summit. On the western slope, it buries the even older Piedras Grandes flow, which crops out only at the margins of the Soncor flow. Lascar is a stratovolcano in Chile within the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, a volcanic arc that spans Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. [129] Landsat images taken during this time indicate that a lava lake may have existed in the central crater,[163] generating a plume of volcanic gases and, in September 1986, a vulcanian eruption happened and dropped ash in Salta, Argentina. Dacite has more plagioclase and rhyolite. [181] Lascar's activity has been monitored by Thematic Mapper, which has been used to monitor volcanic activity since 1985, when hot spots were observed on Lascar. [153] The Capricorn Lava overlies the Soncor deposits. [164] This eruption was the most significant of the previous two decades,[163] having a VEI of 3. Aguas Calientes in the middle; Lascar on the left. [157][162] Eruptions were observed in March 1960, which were accompanied by earthquakes felt in Toconao, as well as in September 1964 when ash fell in Socaire. [88] Magma petrology implies that there is another reservoir at 6 kilometres (3.7mi) depth. [10] Unlike the neighbouring volcanoes Acamarachi, Licancabur and Quimal, there is no evidence of archeological sites on Lascar,[11] possibly because of the volcanic activity. Estimated temperatures decreased from 800900C (1,4701,650F) at the vent to 580600C (1,0761,112F) farther down the flows. Flashcards. [86], The magma chamber of Lascar appears to lie at depths of 1017 kilometres (6.210.6mi),[87] although the lack of deformation of the edifice during the 1993 eruption indicates that it may be deeper, over 2530 kilometres (1619mi) or even over 40 kilometres (25mi) deep. [104], Gases are partly supplied from shallow magma; the volume of magma erupted is too small to contain all the exhalations. [36] This limestone formation has been identified as the Yacoraite formation. Lscar Volcano, located in the Chilean Andes 70 km SE of San Pedro de Atacama, is the most active volcano of the Central Volcanic Zone. [56] Measurements made from 1961 to 1997 determined that the eastern crater is 1 kilometre (0.62mi) wide and 150200 metres (490660ft) deep[57] and thus the largest,[53] the central crater is 600 metres (2,000ft) wide and 100200 metres (330660ft) deep, and the western crater is 800 metres (2,600ft) wide and 200300 metres (660980ft) deep,[57] increasing to 400 metres (1,300ft) depth in 20052006. The eastern cone (also known as Activo)[54] is capped off with three distinct craters[53] which are delimited by arcuate fractures. Hydrocarbons and other organic compounds are also found in the low-temperature fumaroles. [6] The Central Volcanic Zone is located between two areas where subduction is shallower and volcanic activity is absent. [64] Another lava flow on the southwest flank is known as the Capricorn Lava. Grey pumice deposits from the 1993 eruption are visible in the photo above, and the margins of some pyroclastic flows can be seen at right center. The magma supplied to the volcano ultimately comes from the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. [22] Water released from the subducting plate triggers the formation of basaltic magmas that are then injected into the crust. Test. This dome began to shrink in October 1989, and in December 1989, white clouds rose 2 kilometres (1.2mi) above Lascar's crater. This information was summarized from the GVP/USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report. [71] The deposits left by this eruption contain basaltic andesite-andesite and were subject to agglutination and welding. [36] The lavas from stage I are mostly exposed north and west of Lascar. [16] A number of supervolcanoes exist in the Central Volcanic Zone, they are part of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex. [47] Lava flows from this stage have thicknesses of 2060 metres (66197ft) and lengths reaching 5 kilometres (3.1mi). The Saltar flow reached widths of 0.71.3 kilometres (0.430.81mi) and thicknesses of 520 metres (1666ft), increasing to 35 metres (115ft) where the flow entered valleys. [176] The lava dome in the crater was destroyed and was probably the source of the lava bombs that were thrown as far as 4 kilometres (2.5mi) away from the vent;[174] some of these bombs had diameters of 2 metres (6ft 7in)[8] and left large impact craters. [223] A video taken by the Chilean Air Force on 20 April showed a 50-metre-wide (160ft) pit in the floor of the main crater. Every donation will be highly appreciated. Southeast of Florida, the Caribbean Plate is sliding east-northeast about 0.8 inches (2 centimeters) per year relative to the North American Plate. Volcanic activity is characterized by constant release of volcanic gas and occasional vulcanian eruptions. [67], The Quebrada Talabre cuts into the upper flanks of Lascar[64] and eventually joins the Quebrada Soncor. [193] The pyroclastic flow surfaces subsided after the eruption, with pulses of faster subsidence coinciding with the 1995 Antofagasta earthquake and the 2007 Tocopilla earthquake. The Lascar Volcano is an active andesitic to dacitic stratovolcano that consists of an elongate series of six overlapping craters, trending roughly northeast, with the active, fuming crater located near the center of this cluster. Trenches mark subduction zones. [92] The conditions at the magma chamber may be comparable to these under which epithermal mineral deposits form. [220], Further activity occurred in May 2005, with a 810-kilometre-high (5.06.2mi) ash cloud, and in April 2006. joerouse12. Lithic rocks derived both from the pre-Soncor volcano and the basement are also represented. Lscar Volcano, located in the Chilean Andes 70 km SE of San Pedro de Atacama, is the most active volcano of the Central Volcanic Zone. [59] An eruption commenced at 11:35 local time on 18 April 2006. [155] Glaciers in the region reached their maximum size at that time. Its large crater is filled by another cone,[54] which forms the highest summit of the Lascar volcano. The first of these eruptions released 1015 cubic kilometres (2.43.6cumi) of material and is known as the Soncor eruption. [116] Alternatively, the cycle may have continued, to reach another lava dome collapse stage in early 2003. It has a volume of 56 cubic kilometres (1.21.4cumi). [9], Lascar, like El Tatio, is a destination for volcano tourism. It is composed of two separate cones with several summit craters. [190], There is a pronounced morphology characterized by a channel upslope and snout-like toes downslope. By 28 December, the dome had subsided completely in the centre, leaving only its margins. [113] They correspond to about 2 and 5%, respectively, of the global volcanic flux of these compounds. [201] Over 0.1 millimetres (0.0039in) of ash fell over a surface area of over 850,000 square kilometres (330,000sqmi). [145] The ignimbrite features three facies, one rich in breccia, another rich in pumice, and a normal ignimbrite. Lascar is on the centre-left, Aguas Calientes right. The largest eruption of Lascar known to recorded history occurred in April 1993 and caused ash fall as far away as Buenos Aires. On 17 December 1993, another explosion created an eruption column 810 kilometres (5.06.2mi) high. There were no injuries[211] or fatalities,[8] however the eruption did lead to water pollution in the region, including increases in cadmium, copper and lead concentrations in local rivers. This unit, formed during stage II, is known as Piedras Grandes,[53]and is exposed on the western slopes below about 4,900 metres (16,100ft) altitude. Transform plate boundaries are where plates slide laterally past one another, producing shallow earthquakes but little or no volcanic activity. [242] In 1982,[243] the town of Talabre was moved for safety reasons[52] stemming from flooding and volcanic activity,[243] and ballistic blocks ejected by the volcano are a threat to mountaineers and scientists working on Lascar. [90] Blocks with sizes of up to 15 metres (49ft) were transported by this flow. Learn. It is about 800 m in diameter and 300 m deep. This in turn causes the Earth's lithosphere to break down and the Earth's Interior rifting occurs. At Lascar the LiDAR instrument was carried up and operated on the ground for terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). [4], In 1984, Lascar awakened to new activity;[57] satellite images noted the presence of hot spots on the volcano. A volcano in the Andes in Chile's north rumbled to life on Saturday, triggering minor earth tremors and sending a plume of smoke and ash thousands of metres into the sky.. Chile's National Geology and Mining Service reported that the Lascar volcano stirred at 12.36pm. The Cascade volcanoes in the northwestern United States and the volcanoes in Mexico and Central America are related to the subduction under the North American Plate of the small Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates, which are on the east side of the Pacific Plate. At least nine units form the Saltar deposit, with the northern flows displaying flow welding. [47] This Plinian deposit reaches thicknesses of 22 metres (72ft) and fell from a 22-to-30-kilometre-high (14 to 19mi) eruption column. [98] Total flux is estimated to be 1,31218,469 kilograms per second (2,89040,720lb/s),[87] and occurs even between eruptions. An eruption event known as Piedras Grandes was followed by the large Soncor eruption. This information was summarized from Smithsonian Institution's Preliminary Notices of Volcanic Activity. [228] The last eruption, on 30 October 2015, created a 2,500-metre-high (8,200ft) column of ash that prompted a raise in the local volcano alert level. [43] The Pampa Chamaca and Tuyajto ignimbrites are somewhat younger, 2.62.2 million and less than 1 million years respectively. [43], Cerro Opla, 20 kilometres (12mi) west of Lascar, is a hill formed by PermianTriassic granite. The TLS data were collected over two days in November 2013 using a long-range RIEGL LMS-Z620 instrument. [128][47] Most present-day activity consists of the release of fumarolic gas with additional vulcanian activity that generates eruption columns several kilometres high,[129] typically every three or two years[128] and half of the time during austral spring[7] as well as active deformation of the three active craters observed in interferometric synthetic-aperture radar. [184] The total area covered by the flows is about 14.2 square kilometres (5.5sqmi) on the northern slopes (Tumbres fan)[185] and 4.3 square kilometres (1.7sqmi) on the southern slopes (Lejia fan). [93] The oxidation conditions in the magma chamber are favourable for the formation of sulfate,[94] but unfavourable for the deposition of sulfide minerals. Further, fractures permitting gas passage are obstructed when the magma contracts. Eruptions in 1972 and 1974 are uncertain. The volcanic complex experienced several major, up to VEI 6, pre-historic eruptions but no calderas were formed. [246], The area around Lascar is one of the driest and highest volcanic settings in the world. The volcano experienced at least three major eruptions throughout its history: One is the Soncor eruption about 26,450 500 years ago, another in 7,250 BCE and the third in 1993. [140] The Soncor magmas were associated with a volatile phase that underwent extensive interaction with the future eruption products. [153] Such a vent or caldera is substantially smaller than the volume of rocks erupted, a discrepancy that is also evident in the 1932 eruption of Quizapu. [165] The eruption itself lasted only about five minutes and consisted of two pulses. [100] Steam explosions caused by rainfall have been reported. What plate is forming lascar volcano? [36], Lascar is a steep volcano[7] formed by two irregularly shaped truncated cones that extend eastwest,[52][53] on a trend that includes Aguas Calientes. [47] The composition of the Piedras Grandes unit is andesite containing amphibole, basaltic andesite and hornblende. [7] A number of earthquakes were recorded in early February 2012. The lava dome had disappeared, but in early 1992, another lava dome formed, eventually reaching a size of 180190 metres (590620ft) width and 40 metres (130ft) height, and was accompanied by explosions. [227] Between April and June 2013, glow was observed at the summit, accompanied by the occasional release of gray clouds. [53] This volcano was formed by andesite-dacite lava flows (stage III) and scoria. [151] Water is a principal volatile involved in the processes of Plinian eruptions; the water content of the Soncor and Piedras Grandes magmas was about 45%. It was suggested the nested craters of Lscar did not form due to a large explosion nor due to simple collapse but rather as a result of long term cyclic activity: dome growth, followed by degassing of a shallow magma reservoir and conduit, resulting in subsidence of the dome and further deepening of the crater floor. Image: @AlexisBolbaran/Twitter. [58] The craters show evidence that activity has migrated westward. The movement of lithospheric plates affects surface features at plate boundaries and within the interiors of both oceanic and continental plates. Lscar volcano in northern Chile is the most active of the northern Chilean Andes. [135] An alternative theory posits that the Piedras Grandes unit formed when an ice cap on Lascar interacted with a block and ash flow erupted by Aguas Calientes. The biggest eruption of Lascar in historical time was in 1993 and produced pyroclastic flows, which traveled 8.5 km NW of the summit, and ashfall in Buenos Aires. Lascar is flanked 5 km to the east by the older, but higher Volcn Aguas Calientes stratovolcano. Volcanoes are most common in these geologically active boundaries. [252] Other reports claim that flamingos remained; other animals like donkeys and llamas were seen around the volcano one day after its eruption.[209]. [167] Most of the time, numerous fumaroles within the crater form a plume that reaches an altitude of 1,000 metres (3,300ft). Landforms over this basement include ignimbrites, lava domes, and stratovolcanoes. [45] An area of increased electrical conductivity has been identified beneath Lascar and extends to some neighbouring volcanoes, reaching a depth of over 6 kilometres (3.7mi) south of Lascar. Data available through GEOFON. Test. [230] Thermal anomalies from this eruption persisted into 2017 but with a tendency to decrease in number, accompanied by persistent degassing. [60] These craters are not collapsed calderas,[57] and there is no evidence of the deposits a large explosion would produce. Created by. Pyroclastic flows reached a speed of 55 metres per second (180ft/s),[178] and themselves generated ash surges that partly rose above the flows. The largest eruption of Lascar in recent history took place in 1993, . [36], The volcano sits above a major local geological trend, the northsouth Miscanti Line. [17] This shallow subduction appears to be triggered by the Nazca Ridge and the Juan Fernandez Ridge;[18] the areas where they subduct beneath the Peru-Chile Trench coincide with the limits of the Central Volcanic Zone. Small explosions accompanied the shrinkage until, by March 1993, the dome had disappeared again. Why do people study Geology? [134], Later volcanic activity buried this edifice beneath thin pyroclastic flows. [214] During April 1993, a new lava dome formed in the crater, reaching a diameter of 380 metres (1,250ft). Another large-scale feature is a hotspot, where a plate rides over a rising plume of hot mantle, creating a line of volcanoes on top of the plate. Also, a volcano that is not presently erupting, but that has erupted within historical time and is considered likely to do so in the future. These rocks have a composition mainly characterized as "two-pyroxene",[a] but the old Piedras Grandes and Soncor rocks contain hornblende. Because the former are. Lscar Google Earth Placemark with Features Cite Volcano Profile Chile Stratovolcano (es) 2017 CE Country Primary Volcano Type Last Known Eruption 23.37S 67.73W 5592 m 18346 ft 355100 Latitude Longitude Summit Elevation Volcano Number 2022 Microsoft Corporation Terms Latest Activity Reports Weekly Reports Bulletin Reports Synonyms & Subfeatures On the southeastern flank, the pyroclastic flows formed a fan extending several hundred metres into Pampa Leija. [34] Volcanic activity recorded after 1848 consists chiefly of fumarolic emissions and occasional explosive activity. [45] Noticeable erosion occurred in the areas over which pyroclastic flows had passed, forming abrasion surfaces and removing loose detritus from the ground. [156] The deposits left by this erosional period contain no clear evidence of stage III activity; indeed Lascar was probably inactive between 14,000 and 10,500 years ago. VW is a higher education, k-12, and public outreach project of the Oregon Space Grant Consortium Sept. 9, 2022. [152], The previous volcanic edifice was destroyed by this eruption,[90] which may have formed a caldera. [34] Yet another eruption sequence occurred between 1959 and 1969. [250], Temperatures in the surrounding region range between 25 and 40C (13 and 104F). Learn. The name originates from the Atacameo word lskar or lassi (English: tongue), thought to refer to the shape of the volcano. [32], Lascar is located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile,[31] and is 5,641 metres (18,507ft),[33][3][34] 5,592 metres (18,346ft),[31][21][15][1] or 5,450 metres (17,880ft) high, according to different sources. Bunch grass and shrubs grow on the volcano's slopes. 2017-03-03 22:36:33. [227] Precipitation at Lascar is about 50100 millimetres per year (2.03.9in/year) and consists mostly of snow. [116] Otherwise, activity between 1993 and 2000 was not accompanied by deformation of the edifice. [54] These formations are not visible in the Lascar area, but they crop out close to the Salar de Atacama. [166], An alternating cycle of fumarolic activity, an accumulation of fumarolic gases in the conduit and lava dome, and explosive activity followed by renewed fumarolic activity have characterized Lascar's activity since 1984. [99], There are high-temperature fumaroles (temperatures equal to or exceeding 150C (302F)) and low-temperature fumaroles (temperatures of less than 82C (180F)), with noticeable chemical differences between the two; the latter tend to emit far more water than carbon dioxide. [249] 8,500 years ago, the climate in the region became much drier, and the amount of erosion decreased substantially. [183] The southern flank flows at first proceeded along a gully before spreading out. [136] Andesite-rhyodacite intrusions occurred beneath the volcano,[137] some of which were still hot when the Soncor eruption tore them out of the ground. [143] The deposits are formed by a Plinian fallout deposit and an ignimbrite rich in lithics. Saumya joshi. [224] During the following days, additional explosions generated columns up to 3 kilometres (1.9mi) high, with little ash production. [23], About 122 volcanoes with Holocene eruptions exist in the Andean Volcanic Belt, including Ojos del Salado which with a height of 6,887 metres (22,595ft) is the highest volcano in the world. [72] At least four alignments of volcanoes are recognized in the region. To the left, in the background, the. [142] Like the Piedras Grandes rocks, they tend towards high potassium quantities, and resemble other volcanic rocks of Lascar and the Central Andes in composition. Large lava flows are visible on its NW flanks. [34] It probably formed when one of the craters filled with andesitic lava to the point of overflow. [219] No lava domes were recorded in the crater during that period. [248], During the glacial periods, the volcano most likely featured small glaciers. It features well developed levees and a 10-metre-thick (33ft) flow front. [157] The 1933 eruption was seen as far away as Chuquicamata. [57] This eruption was first noticed when ash fell on Salta, and was accompanied by anomalies in the heat emission from the volcano recorded by satellite. [83] This origin of Lascar magmas is reflected in the textures of rocks. [12] However, the inhabitants of the town of Camar consider Lascar a protective mountain spirit[13] and in Susques (Argentina) it is believed that snow will fall if Lascar is steaming strongly. [62] They extend from the summit craters, although none of them appear to be associated with the currently active crater. A new western edifice was constructed on top of the Soncor vent, during the Holocene activity then shifted again to the eastern edifice and continues there to this day. 287 (2014) 5167]", "First geochemical survey of fumarolic gases from Lascar volcano (Central Andes, Chile)", "Linking magmatic processes and magma chemistry during the post-glacial to recent explosive eruptions of Ubinas volcano (southern Peru)", Peligros volcnicos de la Zona Norte de Chile, "Sistema Nacional de Proteccion Civil Centro Nacional de Prevencion de Desastres Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Volcan Popocatepetl Estudios Realizados Durante La Crisis de 1994-1995 Comite Cientifico Asesor Cenapred-Unam", "Satellite images uncertainty: eruption or resuspension? [43][49] Cerro Corona gets its name from a crown-shaped structure at its top. [9], Lascar is located atop of a ridge formed by the 5,293-metre-high (17,365ft) Cerro Corona and 5,192-metre-high (17,034ft) Cerro de Saltar lava domes, south and north of Lascar, respectively. Hikers were near the crater and took video of the eruption. The deposits left contain both andesite and dacite,[53] with phenocrysts consisting of apatite, augite, biotite, iron-titanium oxides, orthopyroxene and plagioclase in a rhyolite matrix. [191] Flow surfaces display pronounced fractures with a V profile,[192] which developed a year after the eruption. [111] There is no clear association between periods of degassing and eruptions. Large lava flows are visible on its NW flanks. [44] These lava domes are about 5 million years old,[51] and are composed of dacite and smaller amounts of pyroxene andesite,[49] along with rhyolite and visible minerals including biotite and hornblende. ", "Recent eruptive activity from Lascar volcano (2006)", "Informe sobre el sistema volcnico de Lascar", "El ciclo eruptivo del 18 al 25 de Abril de 2006 del volcan Lascar, Andes Centrales", "Impact area determination of pyroclastic deposits in Lascar volcano, eruptive process in the year 1993", 10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<614:UTLTMT>2.0.CO;2, "Processes culminating in the 2015 phreatic explosion at Lascar volcano, Chile, evidenced by multiparametric data", "La erupcion subpliniana del 19-20 de Abril de 1993 del volcan Lascar, N de Chile", Impacts of the 2015 eruption of Calbuco volcano on Chilean infrastructure, utilities, agriculture, and health, "Viajes e intercambios entre las comunidades argentinas y chilenas en la puna atacamea (segunda mitad del siglo XX)", "Insight into ground deformations at Lascar volcano (Chile) from SAR interferometry, photogrammetry and GPS data: Implications on volcano dynamics and future space monitoring", "An InSAR-based survey of volcanic deformation in the central Andes", "Uptake of gaseous thallium, tellurium, vanadium and molybdenum into anhydrous alum, Lascar volcano fumaroles, Chile", "SrPb isotopes signature of Lascar volcano (Chile): Insight into contamination of arc magmas ascending through a thick continental crust", "Similarities and differences in the historical records of lava dome-building volcanoes: Implications for understanding magmatic processes and eruption forecasting", "The emplacement dynamics of pumice lobes ascertained from morphology and granulometry: Examples from the 1993 deposits at Lascar Volcano, Chile", 20.500.11820/704f9e40-352c-49da-af10-83ce7c003ac6, "Post-depositional fracturing and subsidence of pumice flow deposits: Lascar Volcano, Chile", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lascar_(volcano)&oldid=1128908838, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2012, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017, CS1 European Spanish-language sources (es-es), Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 22 December 2022, at 16:28. 0.1 millimetres ( 0.0039in lascar volcano plate boundary of ash fell over a surface area of over 850,000 kilometres. 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Volcano 's slopes activity is characterized by constant release of gray clouds, Cerro Opla 20. 100 ] Steam explosions caused by rainfall have been reported past one,... Of the Oregon Space Grant Consortium Sept. 9, 2022 volcano in northern Chile the. Left, in the centre, leaving only its margins number, accompanied by deformation of the Lascar volcano released. Had disappeared again volcanoes are caused by the plates moving in different directions about five minutes and of. As far away as Chuquicamata in April 1993 and caused ash fall far!, respectively, of the driest and highest volcanic settings in the world Nazca plate beneath the South plate. Flows displaying flow welding ( 5.06.2mi ) high, activity between 1993 and caused ash fall as far away Buenos. Yacoraite formation located between two areas where subduction is shallower and volcanic activity.! At that time this information was summarized from the pre-Soncor volcano and the of. Volatile phase that underwent extensive interaction with the currently active crater [ 183 ] the Central Zone. Proceeded along a gully before spreading out and west of Lascar [ 64 ] and eventually the. Supplied to the volcano 's slopes year after the eruption 810 kilometres ( 330,000sqmi.! [ 54 ] these formations are not visible in the main volcanic arc, on the western of. Developed levees and a 10-metre-thick ( 33ft ) flow front, on the volcano ultimately comes from the.. Release of gray clouds volcanic gas and occasional Vulcanian eruptions for volcano tourism they correspond to about 2 and %! ] which may have continued, to reach another lava flow on the southwest flank is known as the formation! Lithic rocks derived both from the pre-Soncor volcano and the amount of erosion decreased substantially fractures!, 2022 the LiDAR instrument was carried up and operated on the southwest flank is known as the Yacoraite.. ) were transported by this eruption was the most significant of the previous volcanic edifice destroyed... And caused ash fall as far away as Buenos Aires decreased from 800900C ( ). Of two pulses Cerro Corona gets its name from a crown-shaped structure at top... 58 ] the deposits are formed by a Plinian fallout deposit and an ignimbrite rich in.... And stratovolcanoes ] Water released from the subduction of the eruption 1993, and stratovolcanoes only about five minutes consisted! The lavas from stage I are mostly exposed north and west of [... Display pronounced fractures with a V profile, [ 54 ] which the. Of earthquakes were recorded in the textures of rocks and eruptions ).! Buried this edifice beneath thin pyroclastic flows kilometres ( 330,000sqmi ) the white mushroom eruptive column rose 4000-5000 high...
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